The Architecture of Matter

The clearest account of how chemistry arose from alchemy I've found.

The authors, philosophers and historians of science, discuss the history of matter theory: that is, the theory of what makes up the world we live in. Some Ancient Greek philosophers posited that matter was ultimately made up of atoms. Others, such as Aristotle, emphasized a teleological approach, with entities moving inexorably toward a higher, perfected state. The ancients also wrestled with the distinction between living and non-living matter and, with respect to living matter, heredity. Aristotle argued for the existence of pneuma, a substance that created life and was passed down through generations. In the Middle Ages, the alchemists attempted to turn base metals into gold. Although this was ultimately fruitless, it reflected the continuing influence of Aristotle's teleological approach. Further, the alchemists were the "chemists" of their era, working in laboratories and developing genuine knowledge of various chemicals and compounds. Before Newton, atomists believed that atoms formed larger entities by colliding with one another and literally hooking into one another. Newtown, however, argued that atoms could be held together by forces. In the early 1800s, advances in chemistry led to the recognition that compounds contained equal ratios of the constituent elements (e.g., the ratio of hydrogen and oxygen in water). This strengthened atomic theory, as it provided evidence that the elements were composed of the same basic "stuff". In the twentieth century, physics began looking at sub-atomic particles, such as electrons and protons. These sub-atomic particles have a number of strange features, such as being both waves and particles and being indeterminate (that is, we can't simultaneously know both the speed and position of a sub-atomic particle with accuracy). Advances in biology in the 1800s led scientists to abandon the idea of pneuma, and even the idea that living matter operates under distinct principles from non-living matter. Instead, living matter operates under the same principles of chemistry as non-living matter, with the unique feature of living matter being the interplay of the various organs and systems. In other words, living matter is different in degree of complexity from non-living matter, not different in kind. Cellular theory developed through the 1800s, and by the end of the 1800s scientists had also begun to crack the mystery of heredity with advances in genetics. By the mid-twentieth century, the central role of DNA in heredity had come to be better understood. Beyond scientific history, this work is also interesting in that it shows the collective role of science. Although there are certain major figures, science is a group effort and even the greatest scientists get things wrong. I deduct one star because some of the discussions of experiments get a bit tedious.

As described. Very good service.

Toulmin and Goodfield are historians who write about the history of ideas. All academic historians are trained to deal with a significant scope of literature. What separates the best from the rest is the quality of the questions they ask. In this regard, Toulmin and Goodfield number among the best ever. That's why, even though this text was published 60 years ago -- and, in fact, helped stimulate the considerable research done over those decades -- it is still exciting to read. Not the last word, but a still relevant and potentially crucial word.